Acute increases in serum colonic short-chain fatty acids elicited by inulin do not increase GLP-1 or PYY responses but may reduce ghrelin in lean and overweight humans

Although neither IN nor RS reduced ghrelin-AUC4–6 compared with GLU,

 at 6 h after IN was significantly lower than that after 

Beta‐adrenergic agonism does not impair the GH response to acylated ghrelin in humans

 is one of the most potent pharmacological stimuli of GH secretion and, unlike GHRH, is refractory to the inhibitory effect of 

, free fatty acids (FFA) and somatostatin.

Acylated ghrelin decreases during acute exercise in the lean and obese state

 concentrations are acutely suppressed after food ingestion or 

, while fat accumulation is a long-term negative regulator.

Ghrelin Is Suppressed by Glucagon and Does Not Mediate Glucagon-Related Growth Hormone Release

There was a significant correlation between the maximum decrease in

Administration of acylated ghrelin reduces insulin sensitivity, whereas the combination of acylated plus unacylated ghrelin strongly improves insulin sensitivity.

, which is rapidly cleared from the circulation, induced a rapid rise in 

Effects of growth hormone (GH) on ghrelin, leptin, and adiponectin in GH-deficient patients.

 and GH are suppressed by intake of nutrients, especially 

Plasma ghrelin concentrations are not regulated by glucose or insulin: a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover clamp study.

Stimulatory effects of ghrelin on circulating somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide levels.

Blood was taken every 15 min for 1 h and then every 30 min for 2 h. As expected,

 with a peak at 30 min and an insulin decrease with a nadir at 60 min.

Is ghrelin a glucagon‐like peptide‐1 secretagogue?

 was reported to enhance GLP‐1 secretion after 

Glucose-mediated control of ghrelin release from primary cultures of gastric mucosal cells.

A recent update on the role of ghrelin in glucose homeostasis.

 production and prevents glucose disposal in muscle and adipose tissues, which collectively leads to hyperglycemia and impaired glucose tolerance.

Acylated ghrelin levels in pre-pubertal obese children at diagnosis and after weight reduction: effect of oral glucose ingestion.

 and decrease in TG, thus increasing the AG/TGr throughout the entire OGTT; this remained unaltered after weight reduction.

Ghrelin and feedback systems.

 levels increase during fasting and decrease after ingesting 

Ghrelin stimulates, whereas des-octanoyl ghrelin inhibits, glucose output by primary hepatocytes.

 counteracts the stimulatory effect of AG on 

 also dose dependently and after 20 min (P < 0.001).

Postprandial responses of circulating energy homeostasis mediators to single macronutrient challenges: influence of obesity and sex hormones.

, LEPR and ADIPOR1 showed a marked increase following the ingestion of 

 compared with lipids and proteins, regardless of obesity and sex steroids.

Insulin resistance and body composition in cancer patients

, testosterone deficiency, and low vitamin D levels may also contribute to altered metabolism of 

Ghrelin Impairs Prandial Glucose Tolerance and Insulin Secretion in Healthy Humans Despite Increasing GLP-1.

 and worsens IV glucose tolerance in healthy subjects.

Jejunal administration of glucose enhances acyl ghrelin suppression in obese humans.

Direct exposure of the proximal jejunum to

 suppression independent of circulating glucose levels.

 also resulted in a greater suppression of 

 than the corresponding isoglycemic glucose infusion (P ≤ 0.01).

Acute Administration of Unacylated Ghrelin Has No Effect on Basal or Stimulated Insulin Secretion in Healthy Humans

 and fructose consumption compared with the other treatments.

Food intake regulating hormones in adult craniopharyngioma patients.

 seem to be altered in CP, whereas changes in insulin, PYY and CCK do not seem to be responsible for the metabolic changes in these patients.

Lipid, adipokine and ghrelin levels in myocardial infarction patients with insulin resistance

The correlation analysis showed a negative correlation between

 and FFA (r = −0.48 р = 0.007), ghrelin and leptin (r = −0.4 р = 0.003), ghrelin and insulin (r = −0.54 р = 0.002), and ghrelin and 

 (r = −0.31 р = 0.002) in MI patients.

Clinical review: The human experience with ghrelin administration.

 stimulates appetite and increases circulating GH, ACTH, cortisol, prolactin, and 

Metabolic effects of overnight continuous infusion of unacylated ghrelin in humans.

 under the curve (AUC) values by 10% (UAG(0 - 960  min): 79.0±1.7×10(3)  mg/dl per min vs saline(…±0.5×10(3)  mg/dl per min vs saline(180 - 660  min): 33.2±1.1×10(3)  mg/dl per min).

Effects of carbohydrate sugars and artificial sweeteners on appetite and the secretion of gastrointestinal satiety peptides.

Our data demonstrate that the secretion of GLP-1, PYY and

 depends on more than the detection of (1) sweetness or (2) the structural analogy to 

Ghrelin and New Metabolic Frontiers

Ghrelin response to oral glucose load in hyperthyroidism, before and after treatment with antithyroid drugs

 level in both groups, but the area under the curve for ghrelin during the OGTT in euthyroidism was greater compared to hyperthyroidism (p=0.05, t=−2.485).

Effect of ghrelin on human endothelial cells apoptosis induced by high glucose.

 also prevented the induction of caspase-3 activation, in cells incubated with 

Effect of oral glucose on acylated and total ghrelin secretion in acromegalic patients.

, and nadir acylated ghrelin levels were lower than basal acylated ghrelin levels: patients: 65+/-13 vs. 42+/-6, p<0.05; controls: 74+/-14 pg/ml vs. 37+/-4 pg/ml, p<0.05).

Relation of nutrients and hormones in polycystic ovary syndrome.

 (from 935 +/- 57 to 777 +/- 51 pg/mL and from 948 +/- 60 to 816 +/- 61 pg/mL, respectively).

Glucagon-like peptide 2 inhibits ghrelin secretion in humans

There was a strong inverse linear relationship between the fasting concentrations of

, insulin and C-peptide (r = 0.49, p < 0.01; r = 0.55, p < 0.01 and r = 0.59, p < 0.001, respectively).

The effect of different macronutrient infusions on appetite, ghrelin and peptide YY in parenterally fed patients.

 [-19.1 (-35.9, -12.4), regression coefficient (95% CI), P<0.001] and parenteral nutrition infusions [-18.2 (-26.8, -9.6), P<0.001].

Ghrelin suppression in overweight children: a manifestation of insulin resistance?

 contributed significantly to the variance in the percent suppression of 

The Leu7Pro polymorphism of preproNPY is associated with decreased insulin secretion, delayed ghrelin suppression, and increased cardiovascular responsiveness to norepinephrine during oral glucose tolerance test.

[Ghrelin--structure, function and clinical applications].

 also has orexigenic activity (increases food intake), influences the sleep/wake cycle, gastric motility and secretion, cardiovascular functions, regulates endocrine function of pancreas and metabolism of 

Plasma levels of intact and degraded ghrelin and their responses to glucose infusion in anorexia nervosa.

, but not degraded ghrelin, occurs in AN in response to 

Acute plasma glucose increase, but not early insulin response, regulates plasma ghrelin.

 both in controls and in T2DM subjects and therefore that early insulin response does not affect plasma ghrelin.

Ghrelin and insulin metabolism

 and insulin metabolism through its effects on adiposity, or through paracrine effects on insulin secretion or insulin signalling pathways.

Hyperglycaemia suppresses the secretion of ghrelin, a novel growth-hormone-releasing peptide: responses to the intravenous and oral administration of glucose.

Glucose Availability Predicts the Feeding Response to Ghrelin in Male Mice, an Effect Dependent on AMPK in AgRP Neurons

 availability may alter how the brain responds to 

, a hormonal signal of energy availability.

The Sweetener-Sensing Mechanisms of the Ghrelin Cell

In vivo, the sensing of d-glucose was polarized since intragastric but not intravenous administration of

 levels in an α-gustducin independent manner which involved inhibition of duodenal ghrelin release.

Des‐acyl ghrelin analogs prevent high‐fat‐diet‐induced dysregulation of glucose homeostasis

 and lipid metabolism, although its mode of action is unknown.

Ghrelin but not obestatin regulates insulin secretion from INS1 beta cell line via UCP2-dependent mechanism.

UCP2 mRNA expression was down-regulated by

, however it was unchanged after obestatin treatment.

Ghrelin modulates insulin sensitivity and tau phosphorylation in high glucose-induced hippocampal neurons.

 uptake was increased and tau hyperphosphorylation was improved.

Effects of ghrelin on glucose-sensing and gastric distension sensitive neurons in rat dorsal vagal complex

, the primary effect of ghrelin on the glucose-INH and glucose-EXC neurons was inhibitory.

Role for des-acyl ghrelin in the responsiveness of plasma hormones and metabolites to ghrelin in Holstein steers.

These data show that (1) GH release was attenuated by repeated administration of ghrelin, (2)

 and fatty acid metabolism probably via different pathway, and (3) des-acyl ghrelin is unlikely the antagonist for ghrelin to induce endocrine effects in Holstein steers.

Short communication: change in plasma ghrelin in dairy cows following an intravenous glucose challenge.

Plasma insulin rose (27.2 mU/L at 10 min) and NEFA, epinephrine, and

 declined (nadir = 0.22 mmol/L, 22.2 microg/L, and 272 microg/L at 31, 13, and 22 min, respectively) after the 

 may be regulated by the decline in circulating concentrations of 

Ghrelin activates neuronal constitutive nitric oxide synthase in pancreatic islet cells while inhibiting insulin release and stimulating glucagon release

 at concentrations of 0.01-1 micromol l-1 inhibited insulin secretion stimulated by 8.3 mmol 

, while ghrelin at concentrations lower than the physiological range (0.01 pmol l-1 to 1 nmol l-1) were without effect.

Role of the duodenum and macronutrient type in ghrelin regulation.

 more rapidly and strongly (by approximately 70%) than did lipids (by approximately 50%).

Effects of exogenous ghrelin on feed intake, weight gain, behavior, and endocrine responses in weanling pigs.

 pigs were greater on d 2, 3, 7, and 8 than on d 1 (P < or = 0.05).

Effects of ghrelin on insulin and glucagon secretion: a study of isolated pancreatic islets and intact mice

Meal-related ghrelin suppression requires postgastric feedback.

 level by approximately 50%, and, in agreement with previous data, water infusions were without effect.

Insulin resistance and body composition in cancer patients.

Serum Concentrations of Ghrelin and Leptin according to Thyroid Hormone Condition, and Their Correlations with Insulin Resistance

 were significantly negatively correlated with age, insulin, 

Acute hormonal response to glucose, lipids and arginine infusion in overweight cats

Cord ghrelin levels are decreased in large‐for‐gestational‐age neonates

 levels and gestational age, the concentrations of 

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Possible Interaction: Glucose and Ghrelin

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